The Book of Jonah

Jonah is unlike any of the other eleven minor prophetic books. Instead of focusing on the prophecies, the author focuses on the prophet, Jonah. This odd nature makes scholars question its placement within the Minor Prophets as opposed to the historical books. Perhaps the canonical and historical context shed light on its place in Jewish literature. Jonah was a contemporary with Hosea, Amos, and Micah during the eighth century BC. His recorded ministry confirms this timeframe because he served as prophet during the reign of Jeroboam II, king of Israel (2 Kgs 14:23-25). Jesus refers to “Jonah the prophet” in Matthew 12:39.[1] Likewise, Tobit, from the Apocrypha, writes about “the prophet Jonas [Jonah]” who spoke at Nineveh. The reason for Jonah’s location within the Minor Prophets remains speculative; nonetheless, several factors support its historicity. In addition to the multiple references to Jonah, there is his repeated failure to comply with God (Jonah 1:3; 4:9). Jonah alone was present when rejecting God’s plan; therefore, he would be reporting his own failures when he told or wrote this story. In addition, the message demonstrates that God has shown himself to be compassion and forgiving, which is consistent with key biblical teachings.

The setting of Israel in Jonah’s day was bleak. War continued between Israel and Judah. Although Jeroboam II “did evil in the sight of the Lord,” God saved Israel from their enemies under his leadership (2 Kgs 14:24, 27-28). In contrast with Judges, God does not raise up a worthy judge but uses the idolatrous king to deliver his people. Jonah appears to be a messenger that God uses to encourage Israel to return to Him. It may be in view of the dire state of Israel that Jonah detests the mission to Nineveh. Jeroboam II is fighting to gain control of Damascus and Hamath from Judah while Jonah’s mission takes him into the future Assyrian capital (established by Sennacherib 701 BC), located nearly seven hundred miles from Joppa (present day Jaffa, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel). The original audience may well have understood cultural nuances that help them to relate to Jonah’s disdain for God’s compassion toward Nineveh. This revelation serves as the main purpose of the book, stressing God’s love toward all people and not just the Israelites.

1:1-3 Jonah Flees from the Lord

Jonah’s identity may be hindered without the reference to his father, Amittai. In combination with the timing of the narrative, as well as the prophetic nature of Jonah’s ministry, it is evident that the introductory character is the same prophet referenced in 2 Kings 14:25. Jonah may also be the young man who Elisha commands to anoint Jehu, king of Israel (2 Kgs 9:1-10).

The situation in Nineveh merits God’s concern: “for their wickedness has come up before Me” (Jonah 1:2). The God of all nations notices that the situation warrants His intervention. Just as the Lord disrupted the natural flow of events in the cities of Babel, Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboiim (Gen 11:7-8; Deut 29:23), he also takes exception to the persistent immorality of the Ninevites.

One might wonder why God chooses a disobedient messenger to proclaim his words to Nineveh, but the same tendency to fail to obey is true of many chosen Israelite leaders (e.g., Moses, Joshua, Samson, Saul, David, and Solomon). Unlike other prophets who, at times, fled from danger, Jonah is the only prophet recorded as running away before delivering his message. Furthermore, unlike Elijah, who fled to Beersheba and called upon God (1 Kgs 19:3-4), Jonah left the country to avoid intercourse with the divine. Hypothetically, Jonah may have believed that God only speaks to his prophets while in Israel, causing him to flee to Tarshish where he would no longer hear the Lord’s voice. The disgrace of this flight can only be biblically compared to that of Cain, who also intentionally “went out from the presence of the Lord” (Gen 4:16).

1:4-12 Jonah’s Interaction with the Sailors

There is no mistaking the Lord’s divine intervention at this point in the narrative. In addition to plainly stating that the Lord caused the great wind (Jonah 1:4), it is improbable that this storm could be considered a coincidence by the story’s audience given the relatively oft-expressed theme of his control over wind and sea in the Old Testament. God’s authority over these elements appears to affect its survivors dramatically. Even Jesus’ disciples were “fearful and amazed” at his authority over the “fierce gale” (Luke 8:23-25).

Amidst the storm, the sailors’ first response is to cry out to their gods. This should have been Jonah’s response, but he neglects the crew by succumbing to a deep sleep. The sailors awake Jonah with petitions for prayer to his God. Louis Ginzberg relates traditions from the Haggada, which read, “‘We have heard,’ said the captain, ‘that the God of the Hebrews is the most powerful. Cry to Him for help. Perhaps He will perform such miracles for us as He did in days of old for the Jews at the Red Sea.’”[2] The God of the Israelites was no stranger to the surrounding nations, who well remembered the stories of the Lord’s deliverance of His people from Egypt and His subsequent and swift conquering of the Canaanites. Therefore, the revelation of Jonah being a Hebrew heightens the fears of the sailors, for they respond, “How could you do this?” or “What have you done?” (NIV).

1:13-17 Great Fish Swallows Jonah

The sailors do something that was likely incredible for Old Testament audiences to read; they pray to Yahweh. Furthermore, the sailors petition the Lord not to hold them accountable for “innocent blood.” Being aware of the Hebrew God, they must too be aware of Israel’s legal traditions and teachings on wisdom (Deut. 19:10, 13; 27:25; Prov. 6:17). Quick to notice which God is responsible for the tempest, they waste no time in wisely addressing him with all the fervor they possess. Once again, the author favorably portrays the sailors: they offer a sacrifice and make vows while Jonah fails to repent.

The contrast between Jonah and the sailors would not have been lost on Old Testament readers. The first words Jonah speaks are in answer to the sailors’ questions, boastfully but truthfully stating, “I am a Hebrew” (Jonah 1:9). Jack Sasson explains, “The narrator is appealing to his audience’s pride; for cibrî can operate as a device to alert it to the extraordinary nature of a Hebrew’s character.”[3] However pious Jonah’s identity as a Hebrew is, his actions have thus far been dishonorable while the sailors have demonstrated humility before the Lord. Jonah’s actions are akin to that of the priest and Levite in the story of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:31-32). However, because the Lord disciplines whom he loves (Heb 12:6), he sent a great fish to swallow Jonah to offer him a second chance at obedience.

2:1-9 Jonah’s Prayer

The days and nights Jonah resided in the fish are not universally accepted as literal. Sasson explains, “Many more scholars do not read the incident historically at all.”[4] It is too fantastic a tale for some to believe without knowing more details. Perhaps that is why the Haggada, which incorporated written and oral sources, includes further explanations regarding the origin of the fish, Jonah’s comfort, the journey to Sheol, a meeting with Leviathan, and how Jonah transfers from a male fish to a female fish.[5] Further doubts arise in how Jonah could survive the digestive process for so long inside the fish’s stomach. However, the Hebrew word for “stomach” (me’eh) does not have a precise translation and Jonah may have been in the oral cavity of a whale possessing a large mouth. This environment could provide Jonah with the oxygen and warmth needed for survival.

Jonah’s prayer is awkward in its nature. Readers would expect the disgraced prophet to repent and offer a humble petition for forgiveness like David did in Psalm 51 after Nathan exposed his adulterous relationship with Bathsheba. Instead of expressing penitence, Jonah expresses thanksgiving to the Lord. Robert Chisholm adds, “He simply celebrated his deliverance, boasted of his superiority to pagans, and made promises.”[6] Failure to admit his guilt is a sign of Jonah’s pride, a character trait that will lead him to despise the Ninevites later in the story. His polished position on his own deliverance will contrast his hostile attitude toward the deliverance of Nineveh’s inhabitants. Each line of Jonah’s prayer reflects various psalms of thanksgiving. Analyzing the following verses reveals close comparisons of meaning.

1. 2:2 – Pss 120:1; 30:2

2. 2:3 – Pss 102:10; 69:2, 15; 42:7

3. 2:4 – Pss 31:22; 5:7; 138:2

4. 2:5 – Pss 69:1; 18:4; 116:3

5. 2:6 – Ps 103:4

6. 2:7 – Pss 143:5; 88:2; 102:1

7. 2:8 – Ps 31:6

8. 2:9 – Pss 116:17-18; 22:25; 3:8

Jonah describes his location as the depth of Sheol, the heart of the seas, the great deep, the roots of the mountains, and the pit. Israelites believed that Sheol was beneath the earth (just as Heaven was above the earth), therefore, Jonah views himself as descending into the very presence of death itself. Solomon describes it as a place devoid of “activity or planning or knowledge or wisdom” (Eccl 9:10). The Greek equivalent for Sheol is “abyss” (abyssos) which means: “the deep place, the underworld, the abode of the dead and demons”[7] and describes the bottomless pit out of which Apollyon will be released and into which the devil will be cast for a thousand years (Rev 9:11; 20:3). Likening this place to the Lake of Fire, Enoch writes that the pre-flood fallen angels will one day receive judgment and “shall be led off to the abyss of fire.”[8] For Jonah to return from the abyss is the equivalent of returning from death’s door.

2:10 The Fish Vomits Jonah

Although details of Jonah’s journey inside the fish are absent from the biblical narrative, tradition reports the pair as having traveled “sixty-five parasangs” (242 miles).[9] Furthermore, Josephus informs readers that Jonah was vomited “upon the Euxine Sea [Black Sea],” adding,” without any hurt upon his body.”[10] However, three days and nights of salt water would have significantly damaged his garments and he would have likely bore a foul odor. Secondary conditions might include hair loss and swarms of insects attracted to his smell.[11] It is uncertain how far Jonah needed to travel in this condition before reaching Nineveh, but he failed not to stray from the path a second time.

3:1-5 Jonah Obeys the Lord

The Lord offers Jonah a second chance to warn the Ninevites that their city faces annihilation in forty days. Despite teaching that God gives second chances, this is not always the case with disobedient prophets (cf. 1 Kgs 13:20-24; Jer 26:20-23). In a parallel situation to Jonah 1:1-2, God repeats his commission but, instead of being rejected, he receives Jonah’s assent, albeit reluctantly, as seen in Jonah 4:2.

After travailing through a “great wind” and surviving a near-death experience in a “great fish,” Jonah finally arrives to the “exceedingly great city” of Nineveh. The author may have exaggerated about the size of the city since it is improbable for the distance to cross on foot to take three days’ time. However, if Jonah were to proclaim his message throughout every neighborhood or even around the circumference of Nineveh, then three days is a reasonable timeframe. Although the text can be read literally from the right perspective and still be true, “the reader is not supposed to do arithmetic. He is supposed to be lost in astonishment.”[12] The quick repentance is assuredly astonishing. Although the city was a three-day walk, repentance broke out after only one day (Jonah 3:4-5).

Did the Ninevites know Jonah by reputation? Did they have foreknowledge of the God of Israel? Readers receive neither a compelling argument, miracles, nor other circumstances why Ninevites should heed Jonah’s warning. Although a flaw in the design of good story telling, readers must remember that the story is about God’s sovereignty and compassion as demonstrated through Jonah’s experiences. Why the citizens “believed in God” upon hearing Jonah is not as important as that they did. Ninevites, perhaps, remembered the Hebrew God who destroyed Pharaoh’s army ca. 1450 BC, some 675 years earlier. Limburg suggests that those in Assyria “do not know anything about the Lord,”[13] but familiarity with Israelite customs appear to exist since the presumably doomed inhabitants respond to Jonah’s proclamation of destruction by fasting and dawning sackcloth, which are Jewish customs (cf. Gen 37:34). Perhaps the famous library of the city, discovered by archaeologists, included information that aided in their understanding of Jonah’s message. The biblical story fails to ease curiosity. Jewish tradition adds very little to this part of the biblical account but emphasizes the unanimous response: “The voice of the prophet was so sonorous that it reached to every corner of the great city, and all who heard his words resolved to turn aside from their ungodly ways.”[14]

3:6-10 The King’s Decree

The king of Nineveh is believed to be Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria (Osnappar in Ezra 4:10). This is the same king credited with establishing the grand library at Nineveh. He joins those few kings in the Bible who are said to have humbled themselves by wearing sackcloth: Ahab, David, and Hezekiah (1 Kgs 21:27; 1 Chr 21:16; Isa 37:1). To Jonah’s chagrin, the king’s repentance meant a blow to Jonah’s expectation and reputation. He would not be respected like those chosen men to whom God announced the destruction of his enemies followed by the judgment actually occurring. For example, God used Moses to foretell of Egypt’s disaster (Exod 14:15-18) and the Lord informed Joshua of Jericho’s fall (Josh 6:2-5). Instead of following similar patterns, eminent doom occurs not in forty days after Jonah’s warning but is extended to 612 BC giving the appearance that he prophesied in error. Jonah may have already been known as a false prophet by his own countrymen for previously predicting Jerusalem’s destruction unless they repented, which they did (cf. Jer 20:7-8). If this is the case, then it is understandable why Jonah’s pride offends easily by Nineveh’s repentance and why he reacts with such indignation towards God’s mercy in the following chapter.

4:1-11 Jonah’s Anger

Motivation behind Jonah’s earlier flight now appears as he professes dismay that God might hold true to his character by withholding calamity from Nineveh should they repent. His complacent description of God in verse 2 is remarkably similar to other Old Testament writings which were penned in exultation (Exod 34:6; Ps 86:5, 15; Joel 2:13). His indignation reflects the reaction by the laborers in Jesus’ parable who worked longer but received the same wages as those who worked less. In that instance, Jesus replied to those grumbling, “Is your eye envious because I am generous?” (Matt 20:15). Likewise, Jonah grumbles against the Lord and receives a rebuke. His anger and pride twice cause him to wish for death rather than repentance (Jonah 4:3, 8). Jonah is stated four times to be, by either God or himself, angry in this chapter (Jonah 4:1, 4, 9). By contrast, God is acknowledged as “slow of anger” (Jonah 4:2).

God appoints several elements of nature to direct Jonah throughout the narrative: the Lord (Yahweh) appoints a fish (Jonah 1:17), a plant (Jonah 4:6), a worm (Jonah 4:7), and a wind (Jonah 4:8). Despite nature’s obedience to God, the prophet fails to heed his words. Jonah’s anger causes him to be blind to the lost Ninevites. He sees past neither his own reputation nor his suffering in the heat (Jonah 4:8). The Lord rebukes Jonah’s failure to have compassion on a hundred and twenty thousand residents who are like lost sheep, “who do not know the difference between their right and left hand” (Jonah 4:11).

The reference to “many animals” causes division between readers on the moral importance of these creatures. Yael Shemesh believes that this statement counters the belief that animals are “objects unworthy of moral consideration.”[15] However, the text makes no moral claim to the potential destruction of many animals. It appears to be a general comment emphasizing the greatness of the city. For God’s compassion to apply to all living beings would require an explanation for the appointment of a worm to kill the plant.

Application

Of the multiple applications to Christian living that are extractable from Jonah, three are here examined. First, the sailors’ behavior is indicative of obedient Christians. They identified the Hebrew God who caused the tempest that enveloped them, sought his mercy, and worked with all of their God-given ability and ingenuity to keep afloat. Faith is evident by the actions taken by those who seek the Lord’s favor. This process challenged Ezra when deciding whether to ask the king for his protection during travel. He felt shame for requesting accompanying “troops and horsemen” after telling the king how powerful his God was (Ezra 8:22). His wisdom led him to make corresponding arrangements in conjunction with his faith in God. Jonah, on the other hand, did not act in accordance with his proud statement, “I am a Hebrew, and I fear the Lord God of heaven who made the sea and the dry land” (Jonah 4:9). Those who boast in their identity in God without living as “doers of the word” run similar risk of inviting God’s chastisement (cf. Jas 1:22).

Second, to understand God’s character, Christians must accept that he is directly involved at his discretion. Jonah experienced divine interference in the form of a violent storm, a large fish, a refreshing plant, a destructive worm, and a scorching wind, reminding readers that God is not as far as some believe. Just as Intertestamental Jews developed a view of a distant God during their Hellenization, Christians are tempted to believe God remote and even uncaring when failing to notice direct supernatural moments in their lives. However, Christians should reconsider seeking such signs, since the Bible generally brings about God’s miracles in Israel during its most rebellious times, such as during the Exodus generation, Elijah’s generation, and Jesus’ generation. All three generations saw spectacular miracles, where God upset the course of history, but only because rebellion to his commands was rampant.

Third, the Lord offers compassion to all nations who call him Lord. Many instances in the Bible suggest that the Israelites thought less of other nations. Instead of being a light to the world (Isa 42:6), they believed themselves inherent of salvation by right of birth under Abraham. Jonah illustrates that we ought to allow God the right to show compassion regardless of whether or not we believe they deserve it. In the spirit of the parable of the Good Samaritan, Christians must avoid thinking that God favors their particular country or denomination, but instead love the world as he does.

[1] NASB 1997 version, unless otherwise stated.

[2] Louis Ginzberg, The Legend of the Jews, translated by Henrietta Szold (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2003), par. 3. Accessed August 21, 2018. http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/loj/loj409.htm. [3] Jack M. Sasson, Jonah: A New Translation with Introduction, Commentary, and Interpretation (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 127. [4] Ibid., 151. [5] Ginzberg, The Legend of the Jews, par. 5-7. [6] Robert B. Chisholm, Handbook on the Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Minor Prophets (Grand Rapids: Baker Academics, 2009), 412. [7] James Strong, The Strongest Strong's Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, Rev. by John R. Kohlenberger III and James A. Swanson (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001), 1475. [8] Paul C. Schnieders and R. H. Charles, The Books of Enoch: Complete Edition (Las Vegas: International Alliance, 2012), 22. [9] Ginzberg, The Legend of the Jews, par. 8. [10] Flavius Josephus. Josephus: The Complete Works, translated by William Whiston (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 310. [11] Ginzberg, The Legend of the Jews, par. 12. [12] Wolff, Hans W. Obadiah and Jonah: A Commentary. Translated by Margaret Kohl (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1976), 148.

[13] Limburg, Jonah, 78. [14] Ginzberg, The Legend of the Jews, par. 8. [15] Yael Shemesh, “‘And Many Beasts’ (Jonah 4:11): The Function and Status of Animals in the Book of Jonah,” Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 10, no. 6 (2010), 26. Accessed August 17, 2018. www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_134.pdf.